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米利都學派創始人泰勒斯提出，水是萬物的本源，到赫拉克利特的水、氣、土、
火四大元素學說。
中國戰國時期騶衍的「五行學說」，都是早期關於構成物質的推測。
德謨克利特或留基伯想像物質由不可能再分割的粒子組成（即早期的原子），並
認為不同物質的「原子」構成。
一六五八年，伽桑迪考察了「原子觀點」的論斷，進而假設物質的原子可以在空
間各方向不停的運動。據此他解釋了一些物理現象，例如說明物質的液態、氣態、固態三種狀態的轉變。
十七世紀，法國哲學家笛卡兒「以太論」他說，看來物體之間所有用力，都必須
通過某種中間媒介物質傳遞，因此空間不可能是空無所有的，它被「以太」所充滿，不能為人的感官所感覺，但確能傳遞力的作用，和月球對潮汐的作用力。真空
「並不是沒有物質的空間」，量子場（即基態）就是真空，真空名詞本義就是虛空。
中國古代張載、王夫之的「元氣」學說，相反地認為世界萬物皆由「元氣」形
成，而陰陽二氣充滿太虛。
英國物理學家牛頓，依據真空觀察系（絕對空間）制訂「萬有引力」，愛因斯坦
在用場的觀點上研究引力之後，便意識到「真空即空」的空間，這一觀念有問題，《狹義相對論》指出，光和電磁場本身就是一種物質可在空間傳播，又否定了「以
太」存在。萬有引力的失實、相對論的成功，說明沒有絕對真空。
中國春秋戰國以前（公元前七七六以前），在西周時就以壺漏測時，以圭表測
影，以定方向、定節氣，人們對宇宙萬物本源，作了最初的探索。提出了「五行」說，認為宇宙萬物是由「金、木、水、火、土」五種基本元素構成的；提出了「陰
陽」說，以陰與陽的矛盾運動解釋種種自然現象；還有八卦說，以線段「－」和「－」來表示陰陽，每三個一組，組成基本符號，各代表一定屬性的事物（如「¡
」代
表水），即八卦，又以它們的排列組合形成64卦，384爻，以此解釋自然現象的千變萬化。
管子在《管子水地篇》中說，水是萬物統一的本源。公元前四世紀的宋鈃和尹文
提出宇宙萬物－於「氣」的學說。在中國以後的歷史時期，「元氣」說有了發展。
墨翟所著《墨經》，記載了時空觀念和機械運動《經上》分別用「彌異時」、
「彌異所」來定義時間和空間，即綜合具體的「時」與「所」，形成「時間」（久）與「空間」（宇）的觀念，墨子認為「運動」，就是物體位置遷移；「靜止」
（止）就是物體在某處停留有一定的時間。由於有了類似於「瞬時」（無久）的觀念，因此對運動的分析比較深刻，他闡明了物體運動，時間有密切聯繫。《墨經》
中還有原始的元素論與物質不滅的樸素思想。
亞里士多德，古希臘哲學家「形式邏輯」的創始人（公元前三八四至前三二二
年），他主張物質空間與時間的聯續性，反對存在「真空」的觀點；他認為感性知覺通過理性活動，可以一下子到達普通抽象的頂點。他列舉出物質的運動變化有
「四因」：形式因、目的因、原料因和動力因。一切物體都具有某種天賦的目的或「自然的本性」，天體永圍地球這一宇宙中心作勻速圓周運動，組成地上物體四種
基本元素（水、火、氣、土），「趨向於自己特有的空間」，具有尋找自己「天然處所」並停留在那裡的本性，從而形成重者向下，輕者向上的「天然運動」（因本
性運動）。
俄國化學家門捷列夫，最早比較完整的於一八六九至一八七一年，根據「元素周
期表」六十三種元素的原子量順序排列的表中，他還預言了三個空位所代表的，尚未發現的元素的性質，這些元素分別是類鋁（鎵）類硅（鍺），不久它們都先後發
現了，測得化學與物理性質和門捷列夫預言的基本一致，現已由人工合成了108和109號元素。
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Thales, the
funder of the Miletus school, proposed that water is the source of the
myriad things, while Heraclitus maintained that fire was the origin of
all phenomena. Empedocles propounded the theory of the four major
elements or ‘roots’, the four being water, air, earth and fire.
The theory of
the five elements proposed by Zou Yan during the Warring States period
(403-222 b.c.) in China was yet another early theory concerning the
composition of matter.
Democritus and
Leucippus in ancient Greece jointly formulated the atomic theory that
matter is formed from indivisible particles (i.e. atoms). Matter was
thought to be comprised of atoms of different elements.
In the
mid-seventeenth century Pierre Gassendi investigated this proposition
from the point of view of atoms and further postulated that atoms of
matter exhibit random motion in space. Based on this, certain physical
phenomena such as the various states of matter—i.e. liquid, gaseous,
and solid states—and the conversions occurring between them could now
be explained.
Also in the
seventeenth century, the French philosopher René Descartes (1596-1650)
stated in his treatise A Theory of Ether that the mutually applying
forces between objects need an intermediate medium of transmission. He
claimed that space is not emptiness without any substance, but that it
is filled up with ether. Ether serves as the medium for transmitting
forces, even thought it cannot be perceived by human sense organs.
Ether also transmits the moon’s effect on the earth’s tidal patterns. A
vacuum is not an empty space without any substance. Vacuity refers to
the quantum field (the ground state) and denotes empty space.
The theory of
primal energy (in Chinese, yuan qi) as proposed by ancient Chinese
philosophers Zhang Zai and Wang Fuzhi, suggested that the myriad things
in the world come from primal energy, and that empty space is filled up
with both the yin and yang energies.
Based on his
observation of vacuums (absolute empty space) the English physicist Sir
Isaac Newton (1642-1727) formulated tha theory of gravity. Albert
Einstein carried out research on quantum fields, and challenged the
validity of the concept of empty space; he recognized that vacuity does
not mean mere emptiness. In his treatise on the special relativity
theory, Einstein showed that light and electromagnetic fields are
matter, and can be transmitted through empty space. He negated the
existence of ether. He also proved that there are areas where Newtonian
physics cannot be successfully applied. The validity of the theory of
relativity suggests that absolute vacuum does not exist.
Prior to the
Warring States era and the Spring and Autumn period in China, during
the Western Zhou dynasty before 776 b.c., time was measured using a
leaking vessel. In order to determine the wind’s direction and the
twenty-four periods of the lunar year the Chinese used a sundial,
measuring the shadow cast by a jade tablet with a square base and a
pointed top. These instruments are examples of some of the early
methods of investigation people used in order to penetrate the origin
and source of the myriad things in the universe. Also in China, the
theory of the five elements was proposed, suggesting that the myriad
things in the universe were formed from the five basic elements of
metal, wood, water, fire and earth.
The theory of
yin and yang was also formulated in China. This theory used the
contradicting and opposing motion of yin and yang to explain all kinds
of phenomena and events in nature. A theory concerning the hexagrams of
the Yi Jing (Book of Changes) was also formulated. The broken and
unbroken lines in these symbols denote yin and yang. In groups of
three, the lines form trigrams, basic symbols that represent the
occurrence of specific events. For example ( )
represents water. The combinations and permutations together give a
total of sixty-four gua (hexagrams) and three hundred and eighty-four
yao (the individual lines in the hexagrams) which are used to explain
the ever-changing phenomena in nature.
In the Water and
Earth Chapter of Guan Zhi’s treatise it is said that water unites the
source of myriad things. (Guan Zhi was also known as Guan Zhong, (d.
644 b.c.), the prime minister of the state of Qi during the Spring and
Autumn period.) In the fourth century b.c., Song Yan and Yin Wen
proposed the theory of energy (in Chinese, qi), which stated that
energy unites the myriad things in the universe. This theory had its
impact on the development of the theory of primal energy that was
developed later in China.
In the book Mo
Jing by Mo Zi, the concepts of time and space as well as a dynamic of
mechanics were recorded, in which time and space were defined as ‘mi
dao time’ and ‘mi dao place.’ Thus a definite time and place were
synthesized, and the concepts of time (jiu) and space (zhou) were
formulated. Mo Zi was of the opinion that motion refers to a change in
the positions of objects, while stillness (zhi) refers to objects
remaining stationary at a certain position for a certain period of
time. Mo Zi carried his in-depth analysis on motion further in
discussing the concept of ‘an instant’ (wu jiu) He explained that there
is an intimate relationship between the motion and time of objects. In
Mo Jing, Mo Zi also suggests that matter cannot be destroyed. An early
version of the theory of elements was also proposed here.
The ancient
Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 b.c.), the founder of formalistic
logic, suggested the continuity of space and time for matter. He
disagreed with the concept of vacuum and postulated that through
intellectual reasoning and activity sense perception can reach the peak
of ordinary abstract ideas. Four factors that influence changes in the
motion of physical bodies are: the apparent cause, the teleological
cause, material, and momentum. All matter is endowed with a certain aim
or ‘natural substance’ Heavenly bodies constantly orbit around the
earth at constant velocities (earth being the center of the
Aristotelian universe) and form the four basic elements of water, fire,
air, and earth, which contitute all matter on earth. Inclining towards
or converging at a specific space belonging to it, matter finds its
state of equilibrium and tends to dwell at that location. Thus
according to their natural motion, heavy substances sink and light ones
rise; this motion is due to their inherent nature.
Between 1869 and
1871, the Russian chemist Dmitri I. Mendeleyev was the first one to
comprehensively arrange the periodic table. Based on the ascending
order of the atomic numbers of the sixty-three elements, he predicted
the properties of three undiscovered elements. These elements were
isotopes of aluminum and curium, which were discovered later. The
actual measured chemical and physical properties basically agree with
Mendeleyev’s prediction. They have been artifficially fused together as
element 108 and element 109.
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