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兩宋時期的佛教
隋
唐時期佛教蓬勃發展，促成大乘各宗派的建立，重要的有智顗法師創立的「天台宗」，吉藏法師創立的「三論宗」，玄奘法師和窺基法師創立的「法相宗」；而道宣律師、清礪律師和懷素律師分別創立的「律宗」，則有南山、相部和東塔三家。由北魏曇鸞法師在唐中葉後，又繼續出現「禪門五家」，即臨濟、曹洞、雲門、法眼、溈仰五派。法藏法師創立的「華嚴宗」，即印僧人善無畏法師、金剛智法師、不空法師和惠果法師所奠定的「密宗」。這些宗派創立之後，隋唐對外交的開拓，不久即傳播海外。北宋初期朝廷對佛教採取保護政策。建隆元年（公元九六○年）普度僧人八千餘人，又派行勤等一五七人赴印度求法，並使張從信於益洲（成都）雕印《大藏經》。
太平興國元年（公元九七六年），普度僧尼十七萬，五年設立譯經院，恢復了從唐代元和六年（八一一年）以來，中斷一七○年的佛經譯翻譯工作。同時西域古印度僧人攜經赴華者絡繹不絕，至景拓（一○三四至一○三七年）已達八十餘人，譯經規模超過唐代，但成就稍遜。宗派以禪宗，特別是臨濟、雲門兩派最盛。天台、華嚴、律宗、淨土稍次。由於各宗互相融合，提倡「教（天台、華嚴）禪一致」，「淨禪一致」，因而廣為流行華嚴、念佛禪等等。另在天台宗中分為山家山外兩派，在民間念佛結社特別興盛，影響極大。天禧五年（公元一○二一年）僧尼近四十六萬人，寺院近四萬所，為北宋佛教發展的高峰。徽宗時（公元一一四一至一一四三年）由於朝廷篤信道教，曾一度下令佛道合流，改寺院為道觀，佛教受到打擊，南宋偏安江南，佛教雖保持一定盛況，但由於官方限制佛教的發展，除禪淨兩宗外，其他各宗，已日衰微，遠非昔比。
元、明、清三朝，元代的統治者崇尚藏傳佛教，佛教中的禪律宗等繼續流傳發展，寺院林立，僧人眾多。元世祖至二十八年（公元一二九一年）全國有寺院四萬二千三百一十八座，僧尼二十一萬三千人，中央和地方設有嚴密的僧官制度，加緊監督頒行了《教修百丈清規》，雕印了著名的普寧寺版《大藏經》。
明朝萬曆以後，祩宏法師、真可法師、德清法師、智旭法師四大家進一步發展了對內融合禪、教、律等宗學說，對外融通儒、釋、道三家的風氣，所以深受士大夫的歡迎和一般平民的信仰，並使佛教更加有中國的特色。
清朝入關後，皇室崇奉藏傳佛教，對漢地佛教採取限制政策，康熙時禁令稍弛，迎明末隱居山林的高僧重返京師，使已經衰微的佛教一時又顯現出復興的氣象。雍正雖重視藏傳佛教，但主張儒、佛、道，異而同體，並行不悖，提倡佛教各派融合。他親制《揀魔辨異錄》提倡不同宗派異同都應念佛，對近世佛教有重要影響。乾隆時刊行《龍藏》並編《漢滿蒙藏四合壁大藏全咒》，對佛教的推動起了一定的推動作用。清末以來，楊文會、歐陽竟無等在日本和西歐佛教的研究推動下，創辨刻經處，為佛教的研究開闢了一個新的時期。中國近代思想家如康有為、梁啟超、譚嗣同、章太炎等都受過佛教的影響。佛學思想曾是譚嗣同所建立的「仁學」體系思想淵源之一。此外名僧如月霖法師、諦閒法師、太虛法師、弘一法師等大師也都奮起從事振興佛教的工作，使佛教產生了新的氣象。
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From last issue:Vinaya Master Jianzhen
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Buddhism during the Two Song Dynasties
D
uring the Sui and Tang dynasties Buddhism flourished and many Mahayana sects were established, most importantly: the Tiantai Sect established by Dharma Master Zhi Yi, the Three Theory (Madhyamika) Sect by Dharma Master Ji Zang, the Dharma Mark Sect by Dharma Masters Hsuan Tsang and Kui Ji, and the Vinaya sects of Nanshan, Xiangbu, and Dongta by Dharma Masters Dao Hsuan, Qing Li, and Huai Jing, respectively. After the mid-Tang Dynasty, following Dharma Master Tan Luan of Northern Wei, five Chan sects emerged, namely the Linji, Caodong, Yunmen, Fayan, and Weiyang sects. The Avatamsaka Sect established by Dharma Master Fa Zang was based upon the Secret School founded by the Indian Dharma Masters Subhakarasimha, Vajra Wisdom, Amoghavajra, and Huigwo. After these sects were formed, the development of foreign trade in the Sui and Tang dynasties helped to spread Buddhism abroad. In the early Song dynasty, the imperial court adopted a policy of protecting Buddhism. In the first year of the Jianlong reign (a.d. 960), the imperial court allowed over 8,000 people to leave the home-life, dispatched Dharma Master Xingqin and one hundred and fifty-six others on a journey to India to seek the Dharma, and commissioned Chang Chongxin to carve the Buddhist Canon in Yizhou (Chengdu).
In the first year of the Taiping Xingguo reign (a.d. 976), there were 170,000 monks and nuns. A translation institute was established over five years’ time, resuming after 170 years the work of translating the Buddhist Sutras, which had been halted since the sixth year of the Yuanhe reign (a.d. 811) in the Tang dynasty. Meanwhile, a continuous stream of monks from the western regions and ancient India came to China, bringing with them the Buddhist Sutras. Over eighty such monks had come to China by the Jingduo reign (a.d. 1034–1037). Although the Sutra translation work surpassed that of the Tang dynasty in scale, its achievements were not as great as those of the Tang dynasty. Among the various sects, the Chan sects, especially Linji and Yunmen sects, were most popular, followed by the Tiantai, Huayan, Vinaya, and Pure Land sects. Since the sects worked together and promoted the combined cultivation of “Teaching (represented by Tiantai and Huayan) and Chan” and “Pure Land and Chan,” such practices as Huayan Chan and Buddha-recitation Chan were the fashion of the time. The Tiantai sect was divided into two schools, Shanjia and Shanwai. They flourished especially among the populace because they formed Buddha recitation groups and thus had great influence. During the fifth year of the Tianxi reign (a.d. 1021), the Buddhism of the Northern Song dynasty reached the peak of its development with 460,000 Sangha members and 40,000 monasteries. During the rule of Emperor Hui (a.d. 1141–1143), the imperial court believed in Taoism and decreed that Buddhism and Taoism be combined and Buddhist monasteries be converted into Taoist temples. Buddhism thus suffered a great setback. The Southern Song dynasty was stable and concentrated in south China, in the region south of the Yangtze River. Although Buddhism still prospered to a certain extent, the government limitations imposed upon its development led to the gradual decline of the various sects, with the exception of the Chan and Pure Land sects.
As for the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties, the ruler of the Yuan dynasty revered Tibetan Buddhism. The Chan, Vinaya, and other sects continued to develop and spread; there were monasteries everywhere, and Sangha members were also very numerous. In the twenty-eighth year of Emperor Shizu in the Yuan dynasty (a.d. 1291), there were 42,318 monasteries and 213,000 monks and nuns in the country. There was a tight-knit Sangha administrative system instituted at both the central and local levels of government. Under its enhanced supervision, The Teaching and Cultivation of Master Bai Zhang’s Rules of Purity was issued and the famous Puning (Universal Peace) Monastery edition of the Buddhist Canon was carved.
After the Wanli reign of the Ming dynasty, the four eminent Dharma Masters Zhu Hong, Zhen Ke, De Qing, and Zhi Xu took another step forward in the development of Buddhism. Internally, they combined the doctrines of the Chan, Teaching, Vinaya, and other sects. Externally, they fused the styles of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism. This development was profoundly welcomed by scholars and believed by the populace, and it further enhanced the Chinese features of Buddhism.
When the Qing dynasty came to power, the emperor revered Tibetan Buddhism and adopted a restrictive policy toward the Buddhism of central China. During Emperor Kangxi’s reign, the prohibition was slightly relaxed, and the lofty monks who had secluded themselves in the mountains during the late Ming Dynasty were invited back to the capital. Buddhism, which had been weak and declining, showed signs of revitalization. Although Emperor Yongzheng favored Tibetan Buddhism, he also advocated that despite their differences, Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism were fundamentally the same and should co-exist without conflict; he also advocated the merging of the various sects and schools of Buddhism. He wrote The Book of Picking out the Demons and Recognizing the Differences, in which he encouraged adherents of all sects to recite the Buddha’s name. He has exerted an important influence on contemporary Buddhism. During the rule of Emperor Qianlong, the Qianlong Buddhist Canon was published and the Complete Collection of Mantras from the Buddhism of central China, Manchuria, Mongolia, and Tibet was complied. These works served to propel Buddhism forward. Since the final years of the Qing Dynasty, motivated by the study of Buddhism taking place in Japan and Western Europe, such people as Yang Wenhui and Ouyang Jingwu have established a place for engraving Sutras, thus beginning a new era for the study of Buddhism. Contemporary Chinese philosophers such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, Tan Sitong, and Chang Taiyan have all been influenced by Buddhism. Buddhism was one of the sources of Tan Sitong’s philosophy of Humanism. Other eminent monks such as the Great Masters Yue Lin, Di Xian, Tai Xu, and Hong Yi have all worked zealously to make Buddhism flourish again, thus bringing a fresh style to Buddhism.
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